My Indian by Mi'sel Joe and Sheila O'Neill

My Indian is a historical fiction account of Sylvester Joe, a Mi'kmaq guide who accompanied William Epps Cormack, a Canadian Scottish explorer who journeyed across the interior of Newfoundland in 1822. According to the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, Cormack's journey had three aims, one of them to establish contact with the Beothuk, an reclusive First Nations people who had fled north to avoid the Europeans.

The story is told in two parts; Suliewey's Tale and Sylvester's Tale. Suliewey's Tale begins with his birth and his naming. Suliewey was named so because his black hair had a streak of silver like that of his grandfather. He was given the name of Sylvester later, when he was baptized by the Catholic missionaries.

When Sylvester was young, he was taken everywhere by his parents in a cradleboard made for him by his grandfather. He watched the hunting of the qalipu and helped to clean the hides so they could be used to make clothing. His grandmother taught him about the plants to be used as medicines. When Suliewey was growing up, everyone worked together in the village. People ate together, prayed, sang and laughed together. They gave thanks to the animals and plants for what they supplied to keep their people alive. "All young Mi'kmaw people were taught the language of the land. They were given the landmarks to recognize, so that when they were out by themselves, they would know what to look for. Wayfinding was taught by using the stars...Suliewey learned from the land, even as he grew up on it." 

One night Suliewey awoke to hear his grandfather speaking to someone in a different language. Suliewey was not able to see the man's face, but in the morning, he questioned Grandfather about this encounter. Suliewey sensed Grandfather was troubled after this meeting. He tells Suliewey they must leave immediately for Pmaqtin, the Sacred Mountain, as the answers he seeks can only be found from the Wuklatmu'jk, or little people. They have been invited to meet with them.

Their journey began with a walk across the bog, towards the mountain. When the fog lifted, Grandfather pointed to a dark spot on the mountain and explained to Suliewey this is where the little people live. Suliewey was frightened and wanted to return to his wikuom, but Grandfather encouraged him onwards. On their journey, they crossed the tracks of a party of three Beothuk, also headed to the mountain. Grandfather decided to follow them.

That night by the fire, Grandfather told Suliewey his story. When he was a boy out with his family gathering berries, Grandfather wandered away from them. After resting at a stream, he awoke to find a large man covered in red ochre staring at him. This man carried Grandfather away to his own people, the Red Indians. He was then taken to their main campsite, a journey of many weeks away from his home. Eventually Grandfather adapted to the ways of his new tribe, befriending a Beothuk woman who helped him to pray and learn their language. Two years after his capture, when Grandfather was eight years old, he managed to run away. He encountered two Mi'kmaw men near a lake. Because he was covered in red ochre, they thought he was a Beothuk, but he spoke to them in Mi'kmaq and told them his story. He explained how he had been captive with the Beothuk for two years. Eventually, he was reunited with his grandfather and grandmother, and parents and was considered a hero because he had survived with the Beothuk.. 

Grandfather told Suliewey that the man who came to talk to him at their home, was the son of the man who had captured him so long ago. This man told Grandfather that the Beothuk were going to the Sacred Mountain to pray and that they were very afraid of the white men and what they were doing to the Beothuk. The white men have been shooting the Beothuk. This man told Suliewey's Grandfather that the Beothuk know Suliewey and his Grandfather are close by. Because the Beothuk were angry and afraid, he asked Grandfather to be careful. Grandfather was not afraid of the Beothuk because he believed they would remember him from living with them years ago. Grandfather was known as Ipa'tu'jij with the silver streak of hair, and he believed that would cause the Beothuk to remember. Nevertheless, Suliewey's Grandfather wanted to be very careful so as not to lead the white men to the Beothuk. The Beothuk are their people too. Like the Beothuk,  they would continue their journey to the Sacred Mountain to pray and give thanks.

When Suliewey turned sixteen, he journeyed from Miawpukek to Nujio'qonikllek also called St. George's Bay by the Europeans. After staying overnight with others from Miawpukek, Suliewey stowed away on a schooner that was travelling to U'nama'kik (Cape Breton Island). At U'nama'kik, Suliewey walked to a village called Membertou. He travelled around Nova Scotia where he learned more about his own people and also went trapping with several Mi'kmaw Elders. Eventually Suliewey returned home, telling his village about his travels that also included trips to Mikl'n, a French island off the Newfoundland coast, a stay on Pass Island as well as stays near Gaultois Island and Roti Bay.

Suliewey spent the following winter trapping furs with his grandfather and then in the spring took his furs to Hermitage. It was here that Suliewey learned that a white man named Cormack in St. John's was looking for a Mi'kmaw guide to lead him across Newfoundland in search of the Beothuk people. Back in his village, Suliewey discussed this with his grandfather and the other Elders. Suliewey's grandfather tells him that if he decides to act as a guide, he cannot take Cormack to where the Beothuk people live as he will be responsible for their deaths.

Suliewey travels to St. John's where he eventually meets up with Cormack. William Cormack, after announcing that Suliewey is "my Indian" informs him that he intends to take him on a one hundred and fifty mile walk to test his fidelity. This both puzzles and offends Suliewey but he agrees to do the walk. The two make the journey from Holyrood to Placentia in July and then prepare for the larger journey across Newfoundland in search of the Beothuk. But the time spent with Cormack has only made Suliewey more determined to ensure Cormack never comes near the Beothuk.

Discussion

My Indian is a fascinating account of a real historical event that occurred in 1822. Told by Mi'sel Joe and Sheila O'Neill from the perspective of Sylvester Joe, My Indian reclaims the story from European authors. The title is a reference to Cormack's way of addressing Sylvester Joe whom he considered to be "My Indian". In the novel, Sylvester frequently returns the favour by referring to Cormack as " nei'n Aqalasie'w" or "My White Man". Cormack's use of the phrase "My Indian" was insulting to Sylvester, as no one owns another person.

The first part of the novel tells of Suliewey's life before he meets William Cormack, while the second part, titled Sylvester's Tale tells about his journey with Cormack across Taqamkuk. This journey was undertaken by Cormack to make contact with the Beothuk. The Beothuk were Algonkian speaking hunter-gatherers who began to avoid contact with the Europeans when they settled in Newfoundland in 1600's. As more Europeans settled in  Newfoundland, the Beothuk became increasingly isolated and it became more difficult to access their traditional fishing and hunting grounds. This led them into conflict with the Europeans and they were often murdered in retaliation. By the beginning of the 1800's, there was only a small population of Beothuk remaining and the last Beothuk, Shanawdithit died in St. John's, Newfoundland in 1829.

In reclaiming the story of Suliewey and his journey with William Cormack, Mi'sel Joe is able to portray the differences between Indigenous and European cultures and their way of thinking about the land and their relationship to other peoples.This is best highlighted in Sulieway's explanation to Cormack about how the Mi'kmaq view the land and everything in it. In response to Cormack's question about whether or not his people have a Bible, Suliewey tells him they are walking on his Bible. 

"This land is Mother Earth. It provides nourishment to my body, my heart, and my spirit. It provides everything I need to survive on this land. It teaches me to be strong, it teaches me to be respectful, and it teaches me to be humble. This land is not mine or yours. It belongs to all the living creatures; it belongs to all of us. And we are all responsible for this land that we walk on. So you see, this is my Bible." Sulieway's explanation highlights a key Indigenous concept about the land, that it belongs to everyone and that everything on it is shared. The European notion of land ownership was not a part of the Indigenous way of living.

Later on Sulieway also explains to Cormack how his people view others in relation to the land. "You say we have no Bible, and we are looked upon as what you call 'savages'. But your people kill our people for money or to take away our land and food sources. When you block our rivers and take our fish and access to other foods we need, our people get weak; they cannot fight with weak bodies....This land gives us all that we need---clothes to keep us warm, food for our survival, transportation, and shelter from the cold. Most of all, it teaches us how to be humble, have patience, and have much respect for all the good things the Great Spirit has given us." He also tells Cormack, that although he might think them lazy or having no spiritual guidance, they recognize their blessings and give thanks for all they have.

Throughout the story, Suliewey offers Cormack his medicines to help him when he's ailing, but Cormack dismisses them as Indian savagery. When Cormack becomes ill, Suliewey collects the seven medicines needed to help him recover. During their journey, Suliewey rubs bear fat on his feet to protect the skin from injury. Cormack believes this is ridiculous, telling Suliewey "We have well-trained doctors who know all about how to care for people. I have lots of medicines with me to cure anything that may be hurting me. So my Indian...." Cormack tells Suliewey his medicines are "uncivilized". However, later in their journey as Cormack's feet deteriorate, he does finally accept Suliewey's offer to use bear fat on his feet.

There are also numerous examples in the novel about how the Mi'kmaq try to live in harmony with nature rather than attempting to subdue it or abuse it of all its resources. For example, when they sail past Baccalieu Island in Conception Bay, Suliewey notes that "eggers", men who collect seabird eggs would take all of the eggs from a nest without regard for the survival of the birds. This was in stark contrast to the Indigenous approach which was to never take "...more than one or two eggs from each nest, leaving the rest as we have done for hundreds of years, and our food source healthy." In the back of the book, in the Book Club section, it is pointed out that this stripping every nest of all its eggs is likely one of the reasons for the extinction of the Great Auk.

As Suliewey experiences more of how Cormack, and therefore the Europeans view the land, the animals and birds in it, he becomes even more determined to never help Cormack locate the Beothuk. Throughout the journey, Suliewey takes great care to watch for any possible contact and to steer Cormack clear of the Beothuk. He also warns any of his own people not to provide Cormack with help in this regard.

Chief Mi'sel Joe is a distant relative of Sylvester Joe. My Indian is based partly on William Cormack's journal, "Narrative of a Journey Across the Island of Newfoundland" which was published in 1873. In 1828, Sylvester refused to accompany Cormack to Red Indian Lake (Mekwe'jite'wa'kik) to look for the remains of two Beothuk killed by Europeans. Sylvester was never seen again, while Cormack did journey to Red Indian Lake where he removed the skulls of  two Beothuk, Nonosabasut and Demasduit from their burial hut and took them to Scotland. The skulls were repatriated in 2020 due to the efforts of Chief Joe Mi'sel.

My Indian offers young readers a chance to learn about both the Mi'kmaq and Beothuk people and their culture and to understand how European contact impacted them. The back of the novel contains an Afterword that details about how the Mi'kmaq and Beothuk, who lived together harmoniously on the west coast of Newfoundland became separated, as well as details on the repatriation of the Beothuk skulls from Edinburgh, Scotland. Also included is a Glossary of Mi'kmaq to English, photographs and maps, References, and a section the offers Book Club Questions.

Book Details:

My Indian by Mi'sel Joe and Sheila O'Neill
St. John's, Newfoundland: Breakwater Books    2021
172pp.